A Two-Stage ESM-Based Machine Learning Pipeline for Robust Hierarchical Enzyme Function Prediction

<jats:p>Accurate enzyme annotation remains a major bottleneck in translating rapidly growing protein sequence data into biological knowledge. Enzyme Commission (EC) prediction is particularly challenging because enzyme functions are organized hierarchically, annotations are often imbalanced across classes, and sequence similarity alone may be insufficient to resolve functional differences. To address these challenges, we developed ESM-ECForest, a two-stage framework that combines protein embeddings generated by the pretrained language model ESM-2 (Evolutionary Scale Modeling 2) with Random Forest classifiers. The first stage distinguishes enzymes from non-enzymes, whereas the second assigns one or more EC numbers to proteins predicted to be enzymatic. On an external benchmark comprising 25,778 protein sequences, ESM-ECForest achieved the highest weighted F1 score among the evaluated methods at all four EC levels, decreasing from 0.94 at Level 1 to 0.90 at Level 4. The largest relative improvements were observed for lyases (EC 4), ligases (EC 6), and translocases (EC 7), although EC 6 and EC 7 remained the most difficult classes internally. Visualization of the ESM-2 embedding space using Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) revealed clustering patterns consistent with enzyme functional relationships, indicating that biologically relevant information is retained in the pretrained representations prior to supervised classification. These results support the use of pretrained protein language model embeddings as an effective foundation for enzyme annotation. By combining large-scale sequence representations with a lightweight supervised classifier, ESM-ECForest provides a scalable approach for EC prediction and may facilitate functional annotation of protein sequences derived from large genomic and metagenomic datasets.</jats:p>