Indoor Air Quality and PM2.5 Exposure in Schools Located in High-Density Residential and Traffic-Influenced Areas of Ho Chi Minh City

<jats:p> Air pollution in classrooms can pose significant health risks to children, as students spend a substantial portion of their day in these environments. This study aims to evaluate indoor air quality (IAQ) in primary and secondary schools in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, with a focus on PM <jats:sub>2.5</jats:sub> exposure and its associated health impacts. Indoor PM <jats:sub>2.5</jats:sub> concentrations were continuously monitored using real-time air quality monitoring systems during both the dry and wet seasons. The results indicate that PM <jats:sub>2.5</jats:sub> concentrations frequently exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended thresholds, particularly in schools located in high-traffic areas. A respiratory deposition model was applied to estimate the inhaled dose of PM <jats:sub>2.5</jats:sub> among students, revealing increased exposure risks, especially during peak pollution periods in the dry season. Gender-related differences in PM <jats:sub>2.5</jats:sub> deposition were observed, with male students exhibiting higher exposure levels due to physiological factors. This study highlights spatial and temporal variations in classroom air quality and quantifies potential health risks to students. The findings contribute to a better understanding of IAQ disparities in educational environments and provide empirical evidence to support future research on effective mitigation strategies. </jats:p>