Abstract
<title>Abstract</title> <p>Labour availability is a critical yet underexplored constraint affecting sustainability transitions in smallholder cocoa systems. This study examines how labour scarcity is reshaping cocoa production in mining-affected and non-mining landscapes within Ghana’s Cocoa Forest REDD+ Programme (GCFRP).Using mixed methods including surveys of 485 farmers, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions across six hotspot intervention areas, the study analyses labour availability, wage dynamics, and competing livelihood opportunities. The findings reveal pronounced labour shortages across cocoa-growing communities, with significantly higher scarcity reported in mining-affected areas. Drawing on Labour Market Segmentation Theory, the results indicate that small-scale mining activities attract young and able-bodied workers away from agriculture, thereby weakening the rural agricultural labour pool. Farmers in mining communities reported greater difficulty securing workers for critical farm operations such as weeding and harvesting, often resulting in delayed farm management activities. The study also identifies rising labour costs in mining-affected areas, reflecting intensified competition between cocoa farming and extractive sectors for the same labour force. In response to these constraints, farmers adopt various coping strategies, including increased reliance on household labour, migrant workers, and adjustments to farm management practices. The implications of these labour dynamics extend beyond farm productivity to the broader sustainability of cocoa landscapes. Labour shortages may limit farmers’ ability to implement labour-intensive practices required for sustainable intensification and climate-smart cocoa production. The study therefore highlights the need for integrated rural development strategies that address labour market distortions while strengthening agricultural livelihoods to support sustainable cocoa production systems and compliance with REDD + and national Nationally Determined Contributions targets.</p>