Abstract
<title>Abstract</title> <p>Background Lead (Pb) contamination in turmeric is a persistent food safety concern in South Asia. In Bangladesh, informal market practices and variable packaging standards may influence contamination levels; however, updated urban surveillance data remain limited. Objective This study aimed to quantify lead concentrations in turmeric sold in Dhaka City, compare contamination between packaged and unpackaged products, and evaluate associated non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks for adult and pediatric consumers. Methods This cross-sectional analytical study was conducted at the Department of Environmental Science and Management, Independent University of Bangladesh, between June 2025 and May 2026. Twelve turmeric powder samples (six packaged, six unpackaged) were collected from six major retail markets in Dhaka City. Lead concentrations were determined by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy following acid digestion. The Mann–Whitney U test and Spearman's rank correlation were applied for statistical analysis. Health risk assessment was performed using estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), and carcinogenic risk (CR) models per USEPA guidelines. Results Lead was detected in all samples (range: 0.84–1.98 mg/kg; mean: 1.34 ± 0.37 mg/kg). Unpackaged turmeric exhibited significantly higher concentrations (1.59 ± 0.36 mg/kg) than packaged products (1.09 ± 0.17 mg/kg) (p = 0.003), with a strong positive correlation (ρ = 0.77, p = 0.003). All samples complied with the Codex Alimentarius permissible limit of 2.0 mg/kg. All THQ values remained below 1.0. The highest carcinogenic risk was observed among children consuming unpackaged turmeric (CR = 2.70 × 10⁻⁶). Conclusion Although turmeric marketed in Dhaka City remains within permissible lead limits, unpackaged products exhibited significantly higher contamination and elevated health risks, particularly for children. Strengthened regulatory surveillance and improved packaging standards are essential to minimize dietary lead exposure.</p>