Abstract
<title>Abstract</title> <p>Context: Tree shade is widely recognized as an effective nature-based cooling solution to mitigate thermal exposure under a warming climate. However, factors modulating the intensity of shade-related cooling remain poorly understood, particularly beyond urban settings where most prior studies have focused on individual tree traits and below-shade land use. Objectives We aimed to examine if the temperature difference between shaded and non-shaded region (ΔT) varied with locations representing different landscape types and land cover composition and to identify key temporal and spatial drivers of ΔT. Methods The study was carried out in three locations within Lusatia, Germany: Cottbus (urban), Cottbuser Ostsee and Sedlitzer see (semi-natural). Surface temperature of shaded and adjacent non-shaded surfaces were measured using handheld thermal camera and environmental variables were extracted using remote sensing datasets. We used two-way ANOVA followed by XGBoost regression and post-hoc interpretability analyses to identify key influencing variables and their impact on ΔT. Results Urban location (Cottbus) exhibited lower ΔT than semi-natural locations by around 2°C. The variation in canopy height appeared among dominant variable which positively influenced ΔT particularly in urban environments. Other key influencing factors included proximity to forests and the proportion of vegetation to impervious density. Land cover composition and landscape diversity showed minimal influence on ΔT. Conclusions Shade-induced cooling was shaped more by location and broader climatic conditions than by land-cover class. Canopy height variation and distance to forest were key drivers, suggesting that adaptation strategies should prioritize vegetation structure and landscape configuration over simply increasing tree cover.</p>