Abstract
<title>Abstract</title> <p> Background Understanding the habitat preferences and movement patterns of cetaceans remains challenging due to their wide-ranging movements and prolonged deep-diving behaviors. We aim to characterize the fine-scale movement patterns and space use of sperm whales ( <italic>Physeter macrocephalus</italic> ) inferred from satellite telemetry and to identify environmental drivers shaping their distribution using species distribution models (SDMs) that integrate surface and subsurface oceanographic variables. Methods We deployed the first satellite transmitters (n = 13) on sperm whales in the Azores during 2018, 2023, and 2024. State space models (SSMs) were used to correct positional uncertainty and regularize tracks. We developed SDMs using generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) on observed and simulated tracks to predict habitat preference relative to static and three-dimensional dynamic variables. Results Twelve of the 13 tagged sperm whales remained in the Azores region for their tracking duration (5-156 days), while one moved towards 20°N latitude and returned northwards. These exhibited prolonged residence, strong site fidelity, and foraging behaviour. Integrating three-dimensional predictors enhanced SDM predictive performance. Sperm whale distribution was primarily driven by dynamic variables, with an interaction between surface temperature and salinity, temperature and salinity across depth layers, sea surface height (SSH), and distance to coast. The highest occurrence was consistently predicted around the Azores islands and decreased with distance from the islands. Predicted distribution varied seasonally and interannually, with recurrent offshore hotspots (~ 35°N), reflecting oceanographic variability. Conclusions By combining telemetry data with three-dimensional predictors, this study provides a novel approach to enhance predictive performance and advance our understanding of the processes shaping sperm whale distribution in the Azores. Our findings highlight the region as an important foraging hotspot supporting prolonged residence for sperm whales, emphasizing the need to protect their habitats from anthropogenic threats under a changing marine ecosystem. </p>