Imaging nanoscale photocarrier traps in solar water-splitting catalysts

<title>Abstract</title> <p> Defects trap photocarriers and hinder solar water splitting. The nanoscale photocarrier transport, trapping, and recombination mechanisms are usually inferred from ensemble-averaged measurements and remain elusive. Because an individual high-performing nanoparticle photocatalyst may outperform the ensemble average, design rules that would otherwise enhance catalytic efficiency remain unclear. Here, we introduce photomodulated electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) in an optically coupled scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) to map photocarrier localization. Using rhodium-doped strontium titanate (SrTiO ₃ :Rh) solar water-splitting nanoparticles, we directly image the carrier densities concentrated at oxygen-vacancy surface trap states. This is achieved by separating photothermal heating from photocarrier populations through experimental and computational analyses of low-loss spectra. Photomodulated STEM-EELS enables angstrom-scale imaging of defect-induced photocarrier traps and their impact on photocatalytic efficiency. </p>