Abstract
<title>Abstract</title> <p>Invasive species generate legacy effects that persist long after their removal. These effects are commonly categorized into three distinct types: structural (changes in landscape-geomorphology), biological (changes in community composition and trophic interactions), and biogeochemical (changes in nutrient cycling). Although these impacts are increasingly recognized, their overall magnitude and duration remain unclear. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on the current knowledge of invasive species legacy effects by considering the main invasive taxa studied, the types of reported changes, and their persistence in both the short-term (< 5 years) and long-term (> 5 years). We identified 46 studies suitable for quantitative meta-analysis, from which we extracted 649 paired observations. Legacy effects generated by invasive animals are far less studied than those from invasive plants, and structural legacies are rarely documented. Biological legacies showed contrasting responses: removing invasive plants increased native plant performance in the long-term, had no net effect on species richness, and reduced native cover and biomass across both short- and long-term studies. Biogeochemical legacies were highly variable over time, showing significant nutrient (N forms) increases in the long-term, whereas soil pH increased primarily in the short-term. Overall, the magnitude and duration of invasion legacies depend heavily on species identity, environmental context, and time elapsed since removal. The scarcity of research on structural and animal-mediated legacies highlights critical knowledge gaps. These findings demonstrate that the impacts of invasive species persist well beyond eradication, emphasizing the crucial importance of incorporating legacy effects into ecological restoration and invasive species management.</p>