Abstract
<title>Abstract</title> <p>Access to safe drinking water is essential for achieving SDG 6. However, microbiological contamination remains widespread in Indonesia, with persistent urban–rural disparities. This study aimed to identify the context-specific determinants of Escherichia coli contamination in household point-of-use (PoU) drinking water across urban and rural Indonesia. We analyzed nationally representative 2023 Sistem Informasi Pengawasan Kualitas Air Minum (SIPEKAM) data, which covered 61,695 households. E. coli contamination was measured by membrane filtration. Survey-weighted stratified logistic regression was used to identify predictors of sociodemographic, infrastructure, and hygiene variables. The results showed that Escherichia coli contamination was detected in 25.4% of households, with a higher prevalence in rural areas (26.9%) than in urban areas (23.2%). The risk factors varied significantly across settings. A lower educational level was a dominant predictor in urban areas (e.g., No formal education versus higher: AOR = 2.93), whereas informal employment (AOR = 1.14) was a unique risk factor in rural households. Deficiencies in the WASH infrastructure, including unimproved water sources (Urban AOR = 1.41; Rural AOR = 1.42) and the absence of handwashing facilities (Urban AOR = 1.44; Rural AOR = 1.28), were consistent predictors. A key and paradoxical finding emerged regarding waste management: the absence of waste containers was a significant risk factor in urban settings (AOR = 2.43) but appeared protective in rural settings (AOR = 0.54). In conclusion, distinct, context-specific pathways drive household water contamination in Indonesia. Moving beyond uniform infrastructure solutions to include targeted educational campaigns in urban areas, coupled with water safety and tailored waste management interventions in rural communities, is crucial for achieving equitable and safe access to water and accelerating progress toward SDG 6.</p>